A CENTURY OF U.S. MILITARY INTERVENTIONS: From Wounded Knee to Afghanistan
Compiled by Zoltan Grossman (revised 09/20/01)

U.S. military spending ($343 billion in the year 2000) is 69 percent greater than that of the next five highest nations combined. Russia, which has the second largest military budget, spends less than one-sixth what the United States does. Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Cuba, Sudan, Iran, and Syria spend $14.4 billion combined; Iran accounts for 52 percent of this total.
 
The following is a partial list of U.S. military interventions from 1890 to 1999. This guide does NOT include demonstration duty by military police, mobilizations of the National Guard, offshore shows of naval strength, reinforcements of embassy personnel, the use of non-Defense Department personnel (such as the Drug Enforcement Agency), military exercises, non-combat mobilizations (such as replacing postal strikers), the permanent stationing of armed forces, covert actions where the U.S. did not play a command and control role, the use of small hostage rescue units, most uses of proxy troops, U.S. piloting of foreign warplanes, foreign disaster assistance, military training and advisory programs not involving direct combat, civic action programs, and many other military activities.

Among sources used, besides news reports, are the Congressional Record (23 June 1969), 180 Landings by the U.S. Marine Corps History Division, Ege & Makhijani in Counterspy (July-Aug. 1982), and Daniel Ellsberg in Protest & Survive. "Instances of Use of United States Forces Abroad, 1798-1993" by Ellen C. Collier of the Library of Congress Congressional Research Service.

SOUTH DAKOTA 1890 (-?) Troops  300 Lakota Indians massacred at Wounded Knee.
ARGENTINA 1890  Troops  Buenos Aires interests protected.
CHILE 1891 Troops Marines clash with nationalist rebels.
HAITI 1891 Troops  Black workers revolt on U.S.-claimed Navassa Island defeated.
IDAHO 1892  Troops  Army suppresses silver miners' strike.
HAWAII 1893 (-?)  Naval, troops Independent kingdom overthrown, annexed.
CHICAGO 1894  Troops  Breaking of rail strike, 34 killed.
NICARAGUA 1894 Troops  Month-long occupation of Bluefields.
CHINA 1894-95  Naval, troops  Marines land in Sino-Japanese War.
KOREA 1894-96  Troops  Marines kept in Seoul during war.
PANAMA 1895 Troops, naval  Marines land in Colombian province.
NICARAGUA 1896  Troops  Marines land in port of Corinto.
CHINA 1898-1900  Troops  Boxer Rebellion fought by foreign armies.
PHILIPPINES 1898-1910(-?)  Naval, troops  Seized from Spain, killed 600,000 Filipinos.
CUBA 1898-1902(-?)  Naval, troops  Seized from Spain, still hold Navy base.
PUERTO RICO 1898(-?)  Naval, troops  Seized from Spain, occupation continues.
GUAM 1898(-?)  Naval, troops  Seized from Spain, still use as base.
MINNESOTA 1898(-?)  Troops  Army battles Chippewa at Leech Lake.
NICARAGUA 1898  Troops  Marines land at port of San Juan del Sur.
SAMOA 1899(-?)  Troops  Battle over succession to throne.
NICARAGUA 1899  Troops  Marines land at port of Bluefields.
IDAHO 1899-1901  Troops  Army occupies Coeur d'Alene mining region.
OKLAHOMA 1901  Troops  Army battles Creek Indian revolt.
PANAMA 1901-14  Naval, troops Broke off from Colombia 1903, annexed Canal Zone 1914-99.
HONDURAS 1903  Troops  Marines intervene in revolution.
DOMINICAN REP. 1903-04  Troops  U.S. interests protected in Revolution.
KOREA 1904-05  Troops  Marines land in Russo-Japanese War.
CUBA 1906-09  Troops  Marines land in democratic election.
NICARAGUA 1907  Troops  "Dollar Diplomacy" protectorate set up.
HONDURAS 1907  Troops  Marines land during war with Nicaragua.
PANAMA 1908  Troops  Marines intervene in election contest.
NICARAGUA 1910  Troops  Marines land in Bluefields and Corinto.
HONDURAS 1911  Troops  U.S. interests protected in civil war.
CHINA 1911-41  Naval, troops  Continuous occupation with flare-ups.
CUBA 1912  Troops  U.S. interests protected in Havana.
PANAMA 19l2  Troops  Marines land during heated election.
HONDURAS 19l2  Troops  Marines protect U.S. economic interests.
NICARAGUA 1912-33  Troops, bombing  20-year occupation, fought guerrillas.
MEXICO 19l3  Naval  Americans evacuated during revolution.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1914  Naval  Fight with rebels over Santo Domingo.
COLORADO 1914  Troops  Breaking of miners' strike by Army.
MEXICO 1914-18  Naval, troops  Series of interventions against nationalists.
HAITI 1914-34  Troops, bombing  19-year occupation after revolts.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1916-24  Troops  8-year Marine occupation.
CUBA 1917-33  Troops  Military occupation, economic protectorate.
WORLD WAR I 19l7-18  Naval, troops Ships sunk, fought Germany 
RUSSIA 1918-22  Naval, troops  Five landings to fight Bolsheviks.
PANAMA 1918-20  Troops  "Police duty" during unrest after elections.
YUGOSLAVIA 1919  Troops  Marines intervene for Italy against Serbs in Dalmatia.
HONDURAS 1919 Troops  Marines land during election campaign.
GUATEMALA 1920  Troops  2-week intervention against unionists.
WEST VIRGINIA  1920-21 Troops, bombing Army intervenes against mineworkers.
TURKEY 1922  Troops  Fought nationalists in Smyrna (Izmir).
CHINA  1922-27  Naval, troops Deployment during nationalist revolt.
HONDURAS 1924-25  Troops  Landed twice during election strife.
PANAMA 1925  Troops  Marines suppress general strike.
CHINA 1927-34  Troops  Marines stationed throughout the country.
EL SALVADOR  1932  Naval  Warships sent during Faribundo Marti revolt.
WASHINGTON DC 1932  Troops Army stops WWI vet bonus protest.
WORLD WAR II  1941-45  Naval,troops, bombing, nuclear Fought Axis for 3 years; 1st nuclear war.
DETROIT 1943 Troops  Army puts down Black rebellion.
IRAN 1946  Nuclear threat  Soviet troops told to leave north (Iranian Azerbaijan).
YUGOSLAVIA 1946  Naval  Response to shooting-down of U.S. plane.
URUGUAY 1947  Nuclear threat  Bombers deployed as show of strength.
GREECE 1947-49  Command operation  U.S. directs extreme-right in civil war.
CHINA 1948-49  Troops  Marines evacuate Americans before Communist victory.
GERMANY 1948  Nuclear threat Atomic-capable bombers guard Berlin Airlift.
PHILIPPINES 1948-54  Command operation CIA directs war against Huk Rebellion.
PUERTO RICO 1950 Command operation Independence rebellion crushed in Ponce.
KOREA 1950-53  Troops, naval, bombing, nuclear threats, U.S.& South Korea fight China &

North Korea to stalemate; A-bomb threat in 1950, & vs. China in 1953. Still have bases.
IRAN 1953  Command operation CIA overthrows democracy, installs Shah.
VIETNAM 1954  Nuclear threat Bombs offered to French to use against siege.
GUATEMALA 1954  Command operation, bombing, nuclear threat CIA directs

exile invasion after new gov't nationalizes U.S. company lands; bombers based in Nicaragua.
EGYPT 1956  Nuclear threat, troops Soviets told to keep out of Suez crisis; Marines evacuate foreigners
LEBANON 1958  Troops, naval Marine occupation against rebels.
IRAQ 1958  Nuclear threat, Iraq warned against invading Kuwait.
CHINA 1958  Nuclear threat China told not to move on Taiwan isles.
PANAMA 1958 Troops Flag protests erupt into confrontation.
VIETNAM 1960-75  Troops, naval, bombing, nuclear threats Fought South Vietnam revolt & North Vietnam;

1-2 million killed in longest U.S. war; atomic bomb threats in 1968 and 1969.
CUBA 1961  Command operation CIA-directed exile invasion fails.
GERMANY 1961  Nuclear threat Alert during Berlin Wall crisis.
CUBA 1962  Nuclear threat Naval Blockade during missile crisis; near-war with USSR.
LAOS 1962  Command operation Military buildup during guerrilla war.
PANAMA 1964 Troops  Panamanians shot for urging canal's return.
INDONESIA 1965  Command operation Million killed in CIA-assisted army coup.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1965-66  Troops, bombing Marines land during election campaign.
GUATEMALA 1966-67 Command operation Green Berets intervene against rebels.
DETROIT 1967  Troops  Army battles Blacks, 43 killed.
UNITED STATES 1968 Troops After King is shot; over 21,000 soldiers in cities.
CAMBODIA 1969-75  Bombing, troops, naval Up to 2 million killed in decade of  bombing, starvation, and political chaos.
OMAN 1970  Command operation U.S. directs Iranian marine invasion.
LAOS 1971-73  Command operation, bombing U.S. directs South Vietnamese invasion; "carpet-bombs" countryside.
SOUTH DAKOTA 1973  Command operation Army directs Wounded Knee siege of Lakotas.
MIDEAST 1973  Nuclear threat World-wide alert during Mideast War.
CHILE 1973  Command operation CIA-backed coup ousts elected marxist president.
CAMBODIA 1975  Troops, bombing Gas captured ship, 28 die in copter crash.
ANGOLA 1976-92  Command operation CIA assists South African-backed rebels.
IRAN 1980  Troops, nuclear threat, aborted bombing Raid to rescue Embassy hostages;

  8 troops die in copter-plane crash. Soviets warned not to get involved in revolution.
LIBYA 1981  Naval jets Two Libyan jets shot down in maneuvers. 
EL SALVADOR 1981-92  Command operation, troops Advisors, overflights aid anti-rebel war,

soldiers briefly involved in hostage clash.
NICARAGUA 1981-90  Command operation, naval CIA directs exile (Contra) invasions, plants harbor mines against revolution.
LEBANON 1982-84  Naval, bombing, troops Marines expel PLO and back Phalangists,

  Navy bombs and shells Muslim and Syrian positions.
HONDURAS 1983-89  Troops  Maneuvers help build bases near borders.
GRENADA 1983-84  Troops, bombing Invasion four years after revolution.
IRAN 1984  Jets  Two Iranian jets shot down over Persian Gulf.
LIBYA 1986  Bombing, naval Air strikes to topple nationalist gov't.
BOLIVIA 1986  Troops Army assists raids on cocaine region. 
IRAN 1987-88  Naval, bombing US intervenes on side of Iraq in war.
LIBYA 1989  Naval jets Two Libyan jets shot down.
VIRGIN ISLANDS 1989  Troops  St. Croix Black unrest after storm.
PHILIPPINES 1989  Jets  Air cover provided for government against coup.
PANAMA 1989-90  Troops, bombing  Nationalist government ousted by 27,000 soldiers, leaders arrested, 2000+ killed.
LIBERIA 1990  Troops  Foreigners evacuated during civil war.
SAUDI ARABIA 1990-91  Troops, jets Iraq countered after invading Kuwait;

540,000 troops also stationed in Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, Israel.
IRAQ 1990-?  Bombing, troops, naval Blockade of Iraqi and Jordanian ports, air strikes; 200,000+ killed in invasion of Iraq and Kuwait; no-fly zone over Kurdish north, Shiite south,  large-scale destruction of Iraqi military.
KUWAIT 1991  Naval, bombing, troops Kuwait royal family returned to throne.
LOS ANGELES 1992  Troops  Army, Marines deployed against anti-police uprising.
SOMALIA 1992-94  Troops, naval, bombing U.S.-led United Nations

occupation during civil war; raids against one Mogadishu faction.
YUGOSLAVIA 1992-94  Naval  Nato blockade of Serbia and Montenegro.
BOSNIA 1993-95  Jets, bombing No-fly zone patrolled in civil war; downed jets, bombed Serbs.
HAITI 1994-96  Troops, naval  Blockade against military government;

troops restore President Aristide to office three years after coup.
CROATIA 1995  Bombing  Krajina Serb airfields attacked before Croatian offensive.
ZAIRE (CONGO) 1996-97  Troops  Marines at Rwandan Hutu refuge camps, in area where Congo revolution begins.
LIBERIA 1997  Troops  Soldiers under fire during evacuation of foreigners.
ALBANIA 1997  Troops  Soldiers under fire during evacuation of foreigners.
SUDAN 1998  Missiles  Attack on pharmaceutical plant alleged to be "terrorist" nerve gas plant.
AFGHANISTAN 1998  Missiles  Attack on former CIA training camps used by

Islamic fundamentalist groups alleged to have attacked embassies.
IRAQ 1998-?  Bombing, Missiles  Four days of intensive air strikes after weapons inspectors allege Iraqi obstructions.
YUGOSLAVIA 1999-?  Bombing, Missiles  Heavy NATO air strikes after Serbia declines to withdraw from Kosovo.
YEMEN 2000  Naval  Suicide bomb attack on USS Cole.
MACEDONIA 2001  Troops  NATO troops shift and partially disarm Albanian rebels.
UNITED STATES 2001  Jets, naval  Response to hijacking attacks.
AFGHANISTAN 2001  Massive U.S. mobilization to attack Taliban, Bin Laden. War could expand to Iraq, Sudan, and beyond.

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For more information or with comments and additions please contact: Zoltan Grossman, 1705 Rutledge, Madison, WI 53704 Phone Fax (608)246-2256. mtn@igc.apc.org Permission to reproduce this list in its entirety is granted by the author, please send any published copy to the above address.

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"Military men are just dumb stupid animals to be used as pawns in foreign policy."   Henry Kissinger

 

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Exposed: The Carlyle Group

Shocking video documentary uncovers

the subversion of America's democracy:

View video documentary here:

http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article3995.htm

 

Information Clearing House

Daily News Headlines Digest

"The war in Iraq does not seem to be over at all, but in the meantime the rebuilding has already started. This has unleashed fierce competition for contracts, which are mainly awarded to American (ed: U.S.) companies.  What is remarkable about these companies, is that they have people on their payroll from American politics and the military. Is this a conflict of interest, or is this the new global way of doing business? [text in the screen at this time reads: 'the iron triangle'] One of the companies that operates in this manner is the Carlyle Group."

On their payroll are people like : George Bush (Sr.), James Baker III and old British Premier John Major.

The Carlyle Group is a private investment bank which doesn't come to the public's attention very often but it is one of the biggest American (ed: USA) investors of the defense industry, telecom, property and financial services.

What is the Carlyle Group? Who are the people behind the name? And how much power does Carlyle have?

 

 

Principals of The Carlyle

Group include (from top left)

former Secretary of State

James A. Baker III, former

U.S. President George H.W.

Bush, and former Secretary of

Defense Frank Carlucci.

 

THE CARLYLE GROUP

The ex-presidents' club

Oliver Burkeman and Julian Borger
Wednesday October 31, 2001
The Guardian

It is hard to imagine an address closer to the heart of American power. The offices of the Carlyle Group are on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, midway between the White House and the Capitol building, and within a stone's throw of the headquarters of the FBI and numerous government departments. The address reflects Carlyle's position at the very centre of the Washington establishment, but amid the frenetic politicking that has occupied the higher reaches of that world in recent weeks, few have paid it much attention. Elsewhere, few have even heard of it.

This is exactly the way Carlyle likes it. For 14 years now, with almost no publicity, the company has been signing up an impressive list of former politicians - including the first President Bush and his secretary of state, James Baker; John Major; one-time World Bank treasurer Afsaneh Masheyekhi and several south-east Asian powerbrokers - and using their contacts and influence to promote the group. Among the companies Carlyle owns are those which make equipment, vehicles and munitions for the US military, and its celebrity employees have long served an ingenious dual purpose, helping encourage investments from the very wealthy while also smoothing the path for Carlyle's defence firms.

Former Premier of

the United Kingdom,

John Major

 

But since the start of the "war on terrorism", the firm - unofficially valued at $3.5bn - has taken on an added significance. Carlyle has become the thread which indirectly links American military policy in Afghanistan to the personal financial fortunes of its celebrity employees, not least the current president's father. And, until earlier this month, Carlyle provided another curious link to the Afghan crisis: among the firm's multi-million-dollar investors were members of the family of Osama bin Laden.

The closest the Carlyle Group has previously come to public attention was last May, when a Seoul-based employee called Peter Chung was forced to resign from his £100,000-a-year job after sending an email to friends - subsequently forwarded to thousands of others - boasting of his plans to "fuck every hot chick in Korea over the next two years". The more business-oriented activities of Carlyle's staff have been conducted much more quietly: since it was founded in 1987 by David Rubenstein, a policy assistant in Jimmy Carter's administration, and two lawyer friends, the firm has been dispatching an array of former world leaders on a series of strategic networking trips.

Last year, George Bush Sr and John Major travelled to Riyadh to talk with senior Saudi businessmen. In September 2000, Carlyle hired speakers including Colin Powell and AOL Time Warner chair Steve Case to address an extravagant party at Washington's Monarch Hotel. Months later, Major joined James Baker for a function at the Lanesborough Hotel in London, to explain the Florida election controversy to the wealthy attendees.

We can assume that Carlyle pays well. Neither Major's office nor Carlyle will confirm the details of his salary as European chairman - an appointment announced shortly before he left the House of Commons after the election - but we know, for the purposes of comparison, that he is paid £105,000 for 28 days' work a year for an unrelated non-executive directorship. Bush gives speeches for the company and is paid with stakes in the firm's investments, believed to be worth at least $80,000 per appearance. The benefits have attracted political stars from around the world: former Philippines president Fidel Ramos is an adviser, as is former Thai premier Anand Panyarachun - as well as former Bundesbank president Karl Otto Pohl, and Arthur Levitt, former chairman of the SEC, the US stock market regulator.

Carlyle partners, who include Baker and the firm's chairman, Frank Carlucci - Ronald Reagan's defence secretary and a former deputy director of the CIA - own stakes that would be worth $180m each if each partner owned an equal slice. As in many areas of its work, though, Carlyle is not obliged to reveal the details, and chooses not to.

Former U.S. Secretary

of Defense, Frank Carlucci

 

Among the defence firms which benefit from Carlyle's success is United Defense, a Virginia-based contractor which makes vertical missile launch systems currently on board US Navy ships in the Arabian sea, as well as a range of other weapons delivery systems and combat vehicles. Carlyle's other holdings span an improbable range, taking in the French newspaper Le Figaro and the company which bottles Dr Pepper.

"They are big, and they are quiet," says David Mulholland, business editor of Jane's Defence Weekly. "But they're not easy to get information out of, [but] United Defense are going to do well [in the current conflict]." United also owns Bofors, a Swedish munitions manufacturer.

Carlyle has said that it does not lobby the federal government, thus avoiding a conflict of interest when, for example, Carlucci met Rumsfeld in February when several important defence contracts were under consideration. But critics see that as a matter of definition.

"It should be a deep cause for concern that a closely held company like Carlyle can simultaneously have directors and advisers that are doing business and making money and also advising the president of the United States," says Peter Eisner, managing director of the Center for Public Integrity, a non-profit-making Washington think-tank. "The problem comes when private business and public policy blend together. What hat is former president Bush wearing when he tells Crown Prince Abdullah not to worry about US policy in the Middle East? What hat does he use when he deals with South Korea, and causes policy changes there? Or when James Baker helps argue the presidential election in the younger Bush's favour? It's a kitchen-cabinet situation, and the informality involved is precisely a mark of Carlyle's success."

The world of private equity is an inherently secretive one. Firms such as Carlyle make most of their money buying firms which are not publicly traded, overhauling them and selling them at a profit, so the process by which likely targets are evaluated is much more confidential than on the open market. "These firms certainly don't go out of their way to get into the headlines," says Steven Bell, chief economist at Deutsche Asset Management. "They'd rather make a splash in Institutional Pensions Week. The aim is to realise very high returns for your investors while exerting a high degree of control over the company. You don't want to get into the headlines when you force the management to fire a director."

The process has worked wonders at United, and this month the firm announced plans to go public, giving Carlyle the chance to cash in its investment.

But what sets Carlyle apart is the way it has exploited its political contacts. When Carlucci arrived there in 1989, he brought with him a phalanx of former subordinates from the CIA and the Pentagon, and an awareness of the scale of business a company like Carlyle could do in the corridors and steak-houses of Washington. In a decade and a half, the firm has been able to realise a 34% rate of return on its investments, and now claims to be the largest private equity firm in the world. Success brought more investors, including the international financier George Soros and, in 1995, the wealthy Saudi Binladin family, who insist they long ago severed all links with their notorious relative. The first president Bush is understood to have visited the Binladins in Saudi Arabia twice on the firm's behalf.

The Carlyle Group does not employ anyone at its Washington headquarters to deal with the press. Inquiries about the links with the Binladins (as most of the family choose to spell their name) are instead referred to someone outside the company, on condition he is referred to only as "a source familiar with the relationship". This source says: "I can confirm the fact that any Binladin Group investment in Carlyle has been terminated or is being terminated. It amounted to a $2m investment in the Carlyle II Fund, which was anyway a very small portion of a $1.3bn fund. In the scheme of the investments and in the scheme of the business of either party it was very small. We have to get this into perspective. But I think there was a sense that there were questions being raised and some controversy, and for such a small amount of money it was something that we wanted to put behind us. It was just a business decision."

 

The Carlyle Group and Bush Saudi connections are well-known.

But if the Binladins' connection to the Carlyle Group lasted no more than six years, the current President Bush's own links to the firm go far deeper. In 1990, he was appointed to the board of one of Carlyle's first purchases, an airline food business called Caterair, which they eventually sold at a loss. He left the board in 1992, later to become Governor of Texas. Shortly thereafter, he was responsible for appointing several members of the board which controlled the investment of Texas teachers' pension funds. A few years later, the board decided to invest $100m of public money in the Carlyle Group. The firm's magic touch was already bringing results. Today, it is proving as fruitful as ever.
          

 

 

  Some of The Carlyle Group's corporate literature, in German and English. The Carlyle Group's operations cover

the world.  The company maintains strategic and profitable business alliances with such businesses

as corporate defense giants Bechtel, United Defense, Vinnell, SAIC, Dyncorp, and Halliburton.

 

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"The Most Important Presentation

to Date Regarding Our World":

Seymour Hersh Amnesty International Lecture

24 Oct 2007

http://www.chycho.com/?q=Seymour_Hersh

The following video/audio presentation is the most important talk given to date regarding the situations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the impending attack on Iran by the United States. It is a must see for anyone that wants to know what is happening in the Middle East, what World War III will look like, the complete hell that the 1.5 million American soldiers that have been involved in the Iraq war have had to live through and in what condition they are returning to the United States, how the world has changed, what the implications of the brutality that has been unleashed by the United States means to you, plus everything else that will affect everyone in the world for decades to come.

Video: Seymour Hersh - Amnesty Lecture 24 Oct 2007 at Trinity College (63:33)

Audio: US intentions for Iran and the Middle East (2007 Amnesty International Lecture, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland)

Watch or listen the above lecture, it is must viewing.

In this lecture, one of the most important points that Seymour Hersh made was that the rhetoric to attack Iran has changed from preventing Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons to stopping them from killing American troops in Iraq. He states that this change in tactics by the US administration seems to be working and that 30% of Americans, at the time of this lecture, supported attacking Iran. He fears that the consequences of people believing the propaganda from the administration will be that an attack on Iran will be realized, if the polls begin to show that more Americans actually support the escalation of war.

Unfortunately for the world, in the most recent Zogby Poll released October 29, the “majority of likely voters – 52% – would support a U.S. military strike to prevent Iran from building a nuclear weapon, and 53% believe it is likely that the U.S. will be involved in a military strike against Iran before the next presidential election.”

How sad that the death of 1 million Iraqi’s with over 4 million displaced, and the complete destruction of the American constitution and the death of so many American soldiers, has not quenched the thirst for blood in the United States.

NOTE: There have been some problems loading the complete video from the www.spiderednews.com website linked above. If you are having difficulties from this source then try the following source. As of this posting the lecture is available at RTÉ.ie titled: “RTÉ.ie presented a live webcast of the 2007 Amnesty International Lecture by Seymour Hersh at Trinity College in Dublin on 24 October.” (1:52:48). This link includes the very important question period.

 

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*********** "Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children. This is not a way of life at all in any true sense." President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1961 ***********

 

************** “I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones.” Albert Einstein **************